Medieval and early modern Essay Example for Free

Medieval and early modern Essay The medieval and early modern periods were eras with distinctive issues and ideals. Some of their key themes were very similar, such as the importance of religion and the role it played in everyday life, while other matters were unique to their time, such as the medieval selling of indulgences, or the early modern Reformation of the Church. These examples illustrate clearly the mixture of change and stasis in the two ages, as a subject shared by both periods yielded so great a diversity of issues. The distinction of the eras makes it evident that some change did occur, but as the period of time between them was not very great, the change must be limited. Everyman and Dr Faustus are respectively medieval and early modern drama texts that share common issues. However, the way in which they handle them varies, and allows an exploration of whether the people and culture of the medieval and early modern period differed by slight degree or strict demarcation. The medieval age of English history is epitomised as a strongly religious time, where Christianity provided a strict identity and purpose in life. Belief in Heaven, Hell and Judgement was very real, as was the constant fear of sin and damnation. The Church was able to manipulate the devout faith of its followers by selling fake holy relics and religious indulgences. The laymen believed it was necessary for them to obtain such items in order to purify themselves of sin, and enter Heaven without suffering through Purgatory. Medieval drama did much to reinforce these beliefs, being completely liturgical. Morality plays were first performed at religious holidays, and warned audiences about sin and salvation, with personification of the psychomachia. They all shared a highly similar narrative structure as good and evil battled for the soul of an initially virtuous man who had become caught in vice. This person represented the whole of humanity, and the play would show how, despite temptat ion and with the help of Christian values, he realised his error and won salvation. By the early modern era, neither the faith in Christ nor in Judgement had diminished, but the understanding of them had altered. People became frustrated with the ecclesiastical despotism that was rife in the established Church, and there was widespread dissatisfaction with the papal  organisation which, according to Erasmus, was felt to be dominated by ignorant monks. The subsequent Reformation changed the form and understanding of religion, making it more accessible to the average person by removing the intercessory functions of priests and bishops, and giving ordinary people more control over their spiritual state. This religious change also had political implications. The disestablishment of the Church created a degree of civil unrest among Catholic and Protestant groups, as factions sprang up with each viewing the other as traitorous, either to England or to God. However, this was not the only face of the early modern era. As the beginning of the Renaissance, it was also a tim e of heady intoxication withlearning anddiscovery. The exploits of the European sailors and the excitement over new civilisations are allegorised by Faustus discovery of magic and the power it wields. As a liturgical morality play, Everyman submits itself fully to the pre-Reformation teachings, and absorbs the conventional attitudes. It was written to encourage medieval audiences to avoid material pursuits, and to ensure they involved themselves in good deeds and were prepared for Judgement. Death was a constant escort in medieval England, and could be expected at any time. As such, Everyman does not convey fear of death itself, but rather of how God will judge man after it, as the protagonist proclaims Full unready I am such reckoning to give and begs for more time in which to make his counting-bookso clear That my reckoning I should not need to fear. To achieve this salvation, Everyman is advised to turn to the Catholic rites of confession and penance, and to scourge himself to remove his sins. As Cawley highlights in his introduction, morality plays were less interested in mans earthly life than in his spiritual welfare in the life to come. Religion is as prominent in Doctor Faustus, but Marlowe presents a contrasting attitude to that of Everyman. His play provides a mocking critique of religious customs, and particularly ridicules Catholic rituals. Marlowe dresses Mephostophilis in the habit of an old Franciscan friar, as Faustus comments That holy shape becomes a devil best, illustrating an air of contempt for the Catholic clergy. He further associates Catholicism with  evil and devilry as he conjures Mephostophilis by chanting in Latin, the language of the Catholic Church. This mockery of Catholicism may be testament to contemporary social attitudes rather than the personal view of Marlowe himself. In the medieval era, it was highly uncommon for anybody to speak out against the Church, either through fear or because it was all they knew, but the Reformation encouraged writers to criticise the papacy and the earlier Church, often as a form of public entertainment. Writers often allied Catholic characters with themes of idiocy or ineptitude, as Marlowe does in his portrayal of Pope Adrian as a humourless megalomaniac, voidof commonsense . Marlowe manipulated the public disdain of Catholicism to criticise established religion in general, challenging many commonly held views, especially regarding forgiveness and salvation. Everymans central theme suggests that Gods mercy always allows sinners to repent, regardless of how much wrong they have done. This belief is illustrated when, despite Death telling Everyman to Come hence, and not tarry, Everyman is able to go to Confession and purify himself from sin. Knowledge, Beauty, Strength, Discretion and the Five Wits are sent to accompany him to the grave, helping Everyman to realise Gods compassion. Good Deeds guide Everyman into the grave and beyond, providing protection and support when he needs it. In comparison, Faustus also finds that he is sent good forces to protect him from eternal damnation. Unfortunately, these forces are not strong enough to withstand Mephostophilis. The latters evil and cunning defeat nature itself, as he dissolves Faustus congealed blood with a chafer of unearthly fire to ensure Faustus bequeaths his soul to Lucifer. A Good Angel and a pious Old Man are also sent to rescue Faustus soul, but their efforts are overcome just as quickly, as the devils entice Faustus with hellish delights and overpower his weak soul. The Good Angel urges Faustus to leave that execrable art and turn to repentance, but each time Faustus considers prayer the Bad Angel dispirits him, dramatising the internal battles raging within the protagonists soul. Marlowe does not conclude that everyone can find redemption in God, as despite striving to turn to Him in his final moments, Faustus is torn apart by devils and condemned eternally. The playwright provides a cynical view of  salvation, as the Good Angel and the Old Man fail to save Faustus, despite seemingly plotting as much as Mephostophilis to win the protagonists soul. Marlowe provides further dubious similarity between the two sides, as in their last scene the angels appear to work almost as one, completing each others speeches and reinforcing the same message that it is too late for Faustus to repent. The play appears to be concerned with punishment rather than deliverance and salvation, as Faustus is warned that He who loves pleasure must for pleasure fall. In contrast, Everyman is forgiven for a lifetime of sin in his last few moments. Although both plays treat the same ideas of religion and redemption, they portray divergent views. This may be explained by the contemporary change in religious understanding. Some scholars argued that peoples destinies were predetermined, regardless of their actions, while others claimed there was hope for everybody. As Lester notes in his introduction, medieval writers believed that because of mankinds fallen state, man relied on the grace and salvation earned by Christ and ministered by the Church. In this respect, the distinction between medieval and early modern seems to be vast. However, the fact that both plays have handled the same issues, albeit in different ways, suggests that the difference is of degree rather than demarcation. As well as the religious elements, Doctor Faustus incorporates Renaissance themes of discovery and knowledge, as Faustus finds a world of profit and delight, of power, of honour, of omnipotence has opened to him. Fundamentally, it is a craving for ultimate knowledge that drives Faustus to necromancy, as he proclaims, A sound magician is a demi-god: here tire my brains to gain a deity! By integrating such humanist ideals into the play, Marlowe creates a dimensional personality for Faustus, which the audience can appreciate and respond to. They witness the development of the character, forcing them to become emotionally involved in the mental turmoil he endures, and keeping them engrossed until the very last line of the play. Professor Bradbrook suggests that Doctor Faustus is primarily an examination of the protagonists mental development, rather than simplythe form of Faustus fortunes. The rationale behind Faustus detailed growth is that it makes him a real person, with whose experie nces the audience can sympathise. Everymans character is not developed in the way his counterparts is. He is generic and seen as part of the wider universe rather than as an individual. The dramatist has been careful to portray Everyman as representative of mankind rather than as a character in his own right. He is not given a personal history nor is any indication provided that might differentiate him from anybody, with the effect of making Everyman relevant to all audience members. He personifies every man and the trials of every person. His example can be applied to anybody, and everybody can see that the salvation he reaches is available to them as well. In this manner, Everyman is as accessible to the audience as Faustus is, although in different ways and with variant purposes fulfilled. There are further similarities between the medieval and early modern plays, some of which have been adopted directly from the former. The use of allegorical and highly functional characters is prevalent in both plays, although it is not as common among other Renaissance texts. In Everyman, each character serves a distinct purpose, showing Everyman how he has misplaced his trust in worldly matters and must turn to Christian teachings for salvation. Fellowship and Kinship tempt Everyman astray by offering to distract him with feasting, drinking and women. Even material Beauty and Knowledge cannot help him, leaving Everyman to seek out Confession, Contrition and Good Deeds. Doctor Faustus is very much in keeping with this medieval attribute. Mephostophilis is the embodiment of temptation, as he distracts Faustus from repentance whenever he feels the protagonist waver, and later admits Twas I that, when thou wert I the way to heavenled thine eye. The Good Angel and Old Man are personifications of good, devout Christians who try to save Faustus. They too can be seen as tempters, as they try to win his soul. The two plays also share personification of the Seven Deadly Sins. Mephostophilis conjures them as a distraction for Faustus, allowing him to delight in the sins, while in Everyman the sins are allegorised in the behaviour of the protagonists dearest people and possessions, suggesting that Everyman has allowed the sins to master him. As well as thematic similarities, there are several production parallels between the medieval and early modern drama. However, these are veiled by  the immense changes that occurred on the stage in the intervening years. Before the Renaissance, plays were performed on and around large wagons, which were carted from one designated area to another. The set was very simple for transportation purposes, but this helped make it apprehendable for the common peasants. The staging was very different for Doctor Faustus, but some of the same ideas regarding spacing and costumes were used. The pageant-wagons had to make use of limited space, and used an upper room to serve as a balcony, heaven, or a distant location. In later theatre the same concept was utilised, with a single spot serving a multitude of functions. Costumes were also sparse, but symbolic props indicated particular roles and characters, another theatrical convention that early modern dramatists relied upon before professional actors were hired in the permanent theatres, and elaborate costumes and sets were made. The new theatres allowed more believable storylines to develop as settings and characters became more realistic, allowing the fiery devils of Doctor Faustus to achieve their optimum effect. However, there is one dramatic convention that is key to Doctor Faustus, which was not common in medieval works. Faustus soliloquies provide an insight to his character that cannot be gained in morality plays, and are actually symbolic of tragedies. While Everymans genre is made clear by its fully functional characters and its reliance on the protagonists generic nature, Marlowes play balances medieval aspects with contemporary humanist elements and manages to create a new genre that combines elements of morality and tragedy, creating an increasingly real persona. Faustus is distinguished from his medieval counterpart by his illustration of the psychology and passions that drive him. He concedes to his hubris and allows his ambition and lust for power to destroy him, something Everyman cannot do. The tragedy element is vital to Doctor Faustus as that is what gives it the memorable depth and allows the drama to move away from being a simple morality play. In conclusion, it is evident that despite their classification as two separate periods, the medieval and the early modern eras share many themes and issues. Their similarities are not limited to literal points, and  incorporate social and customary ones. The eras do have their differences, as is illustrated by their distinction and by their changing contemporary outlooks. Marlowes handling of the plays shared subjects differs from that of Everymans, as the former had a variant combination of social factors to draw his conclusions from. However, the time lapse between the two periods was not great enough to warrant a complete overhaul of thinking and customs. As Cookson realises, the traditions of the Middle Ages still weighed heavily over the early modern writers. At the point at which Doctor Faustus was composed, the difference between medieval and early modern was still of degree rather than strict demarcation. Bibliography  §Bradbrook,MC Themes and Conventions of Elizabethan Tragedy 2nd Edition (Newcastle: Cambridge University Press, 1990)  §Cawley,AC (ed.) Everyman and Medieval Miracle Plays (London: Everymans Library, 1967)  §Cookson,L Doctor Faustus (Hong Kong: Longman Group UK, 1987)  §Davies,T Humanism (New York: Routledge, 1997)  §Henderson,P Christopher Marlowe (London: Longmans, Green Co, 1966)  §Lester,GA (ed.) Three Late Medieval Morality Plays (London: Ernest Benn, 1981)

CONVERGE :: Essays Papers

None Provided15 CONVERGE Converge is an exhibition on at the South Australian Art Gallery between March 2nd until March 30th. The exhibition profiles a selection of work from Australian artists. Our perceptions are challenged as we explore the nexus between art, science and technology. Combining technology and science with art. Ranging from bioethics to the environment to robotics. The exhibition is based on research and discovery. Australian artists have met the challenge merging art and science together producing work that is contemporary a journey for us all to take. Converge artists are engaged in critical debates helping to fusing social and political issues. Converge symposium (at the Adelaide Festival 2002 and online) is an opportunity to express and share opinions on the many issues Converge brings up. Just how could you bring together Art, science and technology? The artists of Converse have done just this admirably. The works have been produced using many different mediums, exploring cutting edge research. One project named Pig Wings created by Oron Catts and Ionat Zurr uses semi-living tissues to create three dimensional tissue sculptures. In the last five years the artists have grown semi-living objects, by culturing cells on artificial scaffolds. The ultimate goal of this work is to culture and sustain for long periods, tissue sculptures thus creating a whole new artistic palette. The semi-living objects consist of both synthetic materials and living organic matter. This particular project used pig’s marrow stem cells in order to grow three sets of wings. The use of living cell and tissues for artistic purposes has created concerns. It blurs the boundaries between what we consider acceptable and what is not. There has been much debate recently in regard to the use of human embryonic stem cells. These cells could potentially help millions of people, but governments and churches that say it is not ethical to use â€Å"potential† human beings have blocked the use of them. This project could help to challenge our perceptions about the use of stem cells. A piece of work completely different from Pig Wings is Ngurrara Canvas by the Mangkaja artists. This work is a collorative effect with each of the artists painting his or her own piece of country. The piece is eight metres by ten metres and maps the lands that form part of the Great Sandy Desert. The main intention behind the work was political but the artists have worked well together blending each area so as to create a seamless whole.

Business Communication Essay

?Introduction In this assignment I am required to explain the different types of business information used by the business organisation that I have chosen for example; verbal, written, non-verbal, non-written, multimedia etc. I will also be writing their sources and purposes and analysing the different types of information. I will then evaluate the appropriateness of business information used to make strategic decisions. The business that I have chosen is Sainsbury’s. Sainsbury’s is a public limited company (PLC). It is the second largest chains of supermarkets in the United Kingdom in the retailing business. Sainsbury’s was first established with a shop in Drury Lane, and then became the largest grocery retailer in 1922. Sainsbury’s provides food and drink, home and garden, technology, toys, entertainment, clothing and much more for their customers. This comes under the tertiary sector business that provides a valuable service that customers and other businesses are prepared to pay for. From where they had first started throughout the years they have expanded it by selling different varieties of products to satisfy their customers as well as giving them new products to purchase. Types of Information Source Purpose Analysis Verbal- Face to face communication about sales reports between staff and sales manager (meetings). Internal Source- Marketing Department. This is because this department deals with sales as they can give information about the results of research undertaken by Sainsbury’s. Face to face discussions could be used by the marketing department to explain/update by communicating sales promotions. Using this opportunity through the meeting the sales manager will also have an overview of how well the employees are doing their job. It is important for Sainsbury’s to have face to face meetings about sales reports often, so that the company itself knows what needs to be improved and how they are progressing currently. Marketing department helps  this type of verbal communication by updating the company using promotions and sales so they can achieve more profit for themselves and shareholders. Verbal-A telephone conversation about a customer enquiring about a product (staff helping a customer through telephone line checking if the product that customer wants is in stock). External Source- Customer Services Department. This is because customer services deals with customer’s issues or any enquiries they might have to do with the products or the store they can speak to a Sainsbury’s representative. A telephone conversation could be used by the customer’s services department to inform future developments on customer’s response to existing products and services. However Sainsbury’s doesn’t just deal with products, they deal with different types on insurances, mobiles, recruitment and so on. It is important for Sainsbury’s to have telephone conversations with customers because this way they are able to know customer’s opinions about certain topics and anything they would like to enquire about it e.g. products, services Sainsbury’s provide. The customer services department helps this type of communication by informing staff and managers about future developments. Verbal-Speeches about expanding on areas that need s improvement (increasing an amount of tills to avoid customers waiting for a long period of time in the queue). Internal Source- Production Department. This is in this specific department because with production they are able to know what areas need improving and so along with past and future levels of production, this department knows how to deal with it in detail. They are able to know what kind of costs Sainsbury’s will be dealing with in order to expand tills which will then move on to the marketing department. Speeches about expanding on areas that need improvement could be used by inviting support for activities so that Sainsbury’s can avoid bad service coming from their employees. This means an explanation needs to be given to employees and others as it is important for them to know why this new improvement in the business is happening. It is important for Sainsbury’s to have speeches on areas that need improvement because in order for the company to expand and improve, improvement on  amount of tills to avoid customers not only helps improve the company but attra cts more new and existing customers too. Also the production department can help as they can specify what areas need to be developed and write in detail about the costs and spacing will be needed to create the new tills for the store. Written-Web-based information about employment and recruitment (information of the company’s website about vacancies available). Internal Source- Human Resources. This is based in this department because human resources can provide information about the staffing and training within Sainsbury’s. Web-based information displays many benefits of multimedia technology. Web-based information about recruitment can be used by human resources to update knowledge and offer employment through multimedia technology. Sainsbury’s website gives different varieties of choices of job roles. They also provide specific searches to allow the people look for a specific store to work in and the kind of the job role they want. It is important for Sainsbury’s to have web based information about employment and recruitment because this helps the company employ people to work for them. It gives a chance for people to use the website find out what kind of vacancies the company has going on and what sort of rules too. It is important that the human resources department deals with this type of communication as they are aware of what kind of resources is needed to create/improve the website. Written-On screen information about sales, advertising, products and promotions on certain products (e.g. food, homecare, TU clothing etc). Internal Source- Marketing Department. This is sectioned in this department because marketing campaigns, promotions and information about the market, Sainsbury’s can take care of this department well. On screen information about sales and promotions could be used by inviting support for activities for a primary purpose of making a profit. By inviting support for activities they can increase more sales on other products to make more profit. It is important for Sainsbury’s to have on screen information about sales, advertising and promotions on products because with promotions on products the company not only will be able to expand by attracting more customers, b ut they will also be gaining more profit which means more shareholders too. It is important that the marketing department deals with advertising, sales and promotions, because they can give information about the results of research they  undertake, which means they can see what their competitors are doing and how their own company can make improvements. Written-Emails for queries regarding certain topics customer’s would like to discuss (Sainsbury’s bank, recruitment and website technical queries etc). External Source- Customer services department. This is based in the customer services department because consumers are able to discuss what kind of issues they want to with the company. Emails for queries regarding certain topics customers would like to discuss, could be used by informing future developments. This is because a business cannot develop and grow more than how much Sainsbury’s is wanting and aiming for if they do not hear what their customers have to say and so emails is one of the communication techniques so that Sainsbury’s can know their views on certain things. It is important that the company lets customers have access to emailing Sainsbury’s for any kind of queries customers would like to discuss. This is because their opinions and allowing them to express their views will help Sai nsbury’s improve/expand. If Sainsbury’s do this customers will feel satisfied that their opinions are being heard and action is being taken. Also it is important that the customer services department deal with this type of communication because Sainsbury’s can give consumers the information they are wanting to know about existing products or even providing a service. Non-Verbal-Deaf person wanting to know which isle in the store is a product in (asking a staff member). External Source-Human Resources. This is located in this department because employees within the stores can help customers who are deaf and wanting a product within the store hence asking help from a staff member. A deaf person wanting to know where a product is in the store could be used by inviting support for activities as information is very important and needs to be required through communications in order to support the business and keeping it running and successful. However for deaf people Sainsbury’s can hire employees that can communicate with deaf people using sign language. It is important in Sainsbury’s that a deaf person wanting to know where certain things are the employees of this company can help them. By doing this Sainsbury’s are able to show that they provide a service that many other stores might not offer. It is important that it is located in the human resources department because employees who can do sign language can help give information towards the customers who are deaf. Some of these  employees might need training for this and human resources department are able to sort that out for them. Multi-Media- PowerPoint presentation showing sales figures (how much profit they have made within 2 months). Internal Source- Finance Department. This is in this department because they will have information relating to Sainsbury’s performance including profit and loss figures, balance sheet and the costs of running Sainsbury’s. PowerPoint presentation showing sales figures could be used by updating knowledge for seeing how much profit they have made during a period of time. This is because so they can know what needs to be done IF they are making less profit. It also updates knowledge to see how well they are doing within sales figures. This is important in Sainsbury’s because PowerPoint presentations that show sales figures allows the company to know how much profit they have made and how well they are doing currently. It is important that the finance department deals with this because they will have an amount of information that includes costs, sales and how much profit the company is making.

Robert E. Wormsley s The New Guinea - 1319 Words

Historical studies indicate that the New Guinea was one of the hottest countries, insect infested, and occupied by aggressive people. The Imbonggu community is one of the integral parts of the community. William E. Wormsley drew a special insight into the lives of these people after spending several years with them. In his fascinating book, the author uses an incisive, yet articulate, voice to describe the culture, social structure as well as bride wealth, religion, and magic among these people (Wormsley, 1993). During that period, New Guinea was specially known as a man-eating zone. The local people were reputed as cannibals, nasty and aggressive people. Therefore, as the anthropologist of his time, Wormsley was destined to critically analyze the group on their view of the white man. A study that released results that still struck the world with shock (Wormsley, 1993). During the study, the renowned anthropologist uses the local lingua franca â€Å"Neo-Melanesian† to collect his data from the Imbonggu villages. At first, the Wormsley finds himself as an object of competition as different communities wanted to stay with him. The men thought that Wormsley had come to collect the head tax†, one of the renowned colonial payments that were subjected to men based on the number of women. In these communities, the author observes the culture of both men and women to collect his data. He notes how men are engaged in war, religion and politics (Wormsley, 1993). Women, on the other